Thursday, May 29, 2014
POETRY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Friday, May 9, 2014
PS 78 LITERARY CRITICISM
literary criticism
barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition
references:
https://ddeubel.edublogs.org/2010/12/17/barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition/comment-page-1/
• www.aiu.edu/University {30/01/2014}
• www.ehow.com/info_7879672_types-language-barriers.html#ixzz2sXNtivvx[30/01/2014]
• https://ddeubel.edublogs.org/2010/12/17/barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition/comment-page-1/{30/01/2014}
Learning a second language isn’t easy. There is a lot that can get in the way. It isn’t as automatic or sure as we’d suppose. Depending on the person, there can be some high barriers to learning another language.
I’m teaching a unit on this in a certificate course and thought I’d make my own list. (yes, could have flipped open my Gass and Selinker but then I wouldn’t be learning anything, would I!?) I’d love it if you could read and add something I missed or tell us which you think is the most important to spend time diminishing. I put them into 5 categories.
Barriers to Language Acquisition and Learning
Social
- peer group
- socio-economic status
- L1 education and literacy
- parental/family support
- access and support
Psycho / Emotional
- affective factors (anxiety, social bias)
- self belief
- motivation (low intrinsic and extrinsic forces)
- attitude towards language and learning
- social disposition / character
Biological
- psycho motor skills
- cognitive functioning
- L1 development / childhood developmental factors
- physical impairments (deaf, blind etc…)
- psychological fitness
- age and health
Pedagogical
- type and method of instruction
- improper materials and curriculum
- little access to input (native speakers / audio material)
- school and classroom culture
- lack of learning skills, strategies
- teacher/student relationship
- planning and use of time
Cultural
- language transfer and interference (L1-L2 closeness)
- cultural values regarding risk taking, openess
- government policy and investment
- dislocation, movement, war
The structure of age: in search of barriers to second language acquisition
1. Ellen Bialystok
1. York University
Two small-scale studies are described which attempt to explore some of these issues. In both cases, it is found that the correspondence between language structures in the first and second language is the most important factor affecting acquisition. The age at which second language acquisitions begins is not a significant factor in either study, but the length of residence, indicating the amount of time spent speaking the second language, is significant in the second study. The conclusion is that there is insufficient evidence to accept the claim that mastery of a second language is determined wholly, or even primarily, by maturational factors. Some suggestions are made for an alternative interpretation based on processing differences between older and younger language learners.
an overview of the five most important ID variables (personality, aptitude, motivation, learning styles and learning strategies) and then concludes by describing certain common themes in contemporary ID research.
DOI: 10.1075/aila.19.05dor
In: Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen and Zoltán Dörnyei (eds.), Themes in SLA Research. AILA Review, Volume 19 . 2006. 132 pp. (pp. 42–68)
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION BARRIERS
These are the obvious reasons for the problems experienced in second language acquisition, and most of them are related that people attempt to learn another language during their teenage or adult years, in a few hours each week of school time, and they have a lot of other things to take care of, instead a child learns via the constant interaction that he or she experiences, and has not many things else to do. Besides the adult or teenage people have an already known language available for most of their daily communicative requirements.
There are other reasons, for example the suggestion that adults tongues get stiff from pronouncing one type of language and just cannot cope with the sounds of another language. However there is not physical evidence to support this.
Maybe the primary difficulty for most people can be captured in terms of a distinction between acquisition and learning.
The term acquisition refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. Instead the term learning applies to the conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language.
Activities related with learning have traditionally been used in language teaching in schools, and if they are successful tend to result in knowledge about the language studied. Activities related with acquisition are those experienced by the
young child and by those who pick up another language from long periods spent in social interaction, the language used daily, in another country.
Those whose second language experience is primarily a learning one tend not to develop the proficiency of those who have had an acquiring experience.
However, even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to reach native like proficiency in using a second language. There are suggestions that some features, for example vocabulary or grammar, of a second language are easier to acquire than other, for example phonology. Sometimes this is taken as evidence that after the critical period has passed, around puberty, it becomes very difficult to acquire another language fully. It has been demonstrated that students in their early teens are quicker and more effective second language learners than, for example 7 year old. It may be, of course, that the acquisition of a second language requires a combination of factors. The optimum age may be during the years 11-16 when the flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost, and the maturation of cognitive skills allows more effective working out of the regular features of the second language encountered.
Yet during this optimum age, there may exist an acquisition barrier of quite a different sort. Teenagers are typically much more self conscious than young children. If there is a strong element of unwillingness or embarrassment in attempting to produce the different sounds of other languages, then it may override whatever physical and cognitive abilities there are. If this self-consciousness is combined with a lack of empathy with the foreign culture, then the subtle effects of not wanting to sound like a Russian or an American may strongly inhibit the acquisition process.
DIFFERENCE B/W LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
Language acquisition is the ability of the brain in its cognitive development & process to conceptualize concepts,structures and semantics in a language , while learning is the active participation and effort to learn a language. Language teachers devise methods as components of language acquisition, while learners use them to learn.
Language acquisition is a natural process for any native to acquire his native vernacular language.Language learning is a structured system for anyone to learn a language.
Language Acquisition & Language Learning:
It is important to understand the difference between language acquisition, in which language is acquired, and
language learning, in which language is learned. The term second language refers to a language developed in addition to one’s first language. Some children acquire a second language in much the same way as a first language, for example, if they move to another country at a young age or if their caregiver speaks a different language. But in most cases a second language is learned, rather than acquired. That is, the second language is developed with a conscious effort rather than by actually using the language naturally. Most learners of Dena’ina are learning in this way, with concious effort.
There are many differences between first language acquisition and second language learning. There are also many myths about these difference. It is generally true that it is easier to acquire a first language than it is to learn a second language. But the reasons for this difference are for the most part based on the difference between acquisition and learning.
One myth is that it is somehow easier to learn a language if it was spoken by your ancestors. Whle there may be a genetic disposition toward the human capacity for language, there is no genetic disposition toward a particular language. Thus, in theory it is no easier for a person of Dena’ina heritage to learn Dena’ina than to learn French (though the ready availability of curriculum and speakers may make French easier in practice).
Another common myth is that children simply learn language easier than adults. Children do indeed seem to develop better pronunciation skills than do adults who learn language later in life. In fact, it is nearly impossible for adults to develop completely native-like pronunciation. However, adults are just as capable of learning language as are children. The reasons it seems easier for children has less to do with age than with other factors that go along with age.
Most significantly, a child is in a very special privileged position in society. Errors which seem cute when made by a child are odd or weird when made by an adult. We are happy to smile and talk “baby-talk” with a child, but reluctant to do this for adults.
Children are happy to babble away to themselves, while adults may be more self-conscious. Overcoming some of this reluctance to appear child-like may significantly improve the success of second-language learners.
Language acquisition vs language learning:
There is an important distinction made by linguists between language acquisition and language learning. Children acquire
language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language. They get a feel for what is and what isn’t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. The emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form. Young students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of “on the job” practice. They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.
Language learning, on the other hand, is not communicative. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing.r A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.
THE AFFECTIVE FILTER:
All learners in the process of acquiring a second language have an invisible filter inside of them that has the potential to result in anxiety, stress, and lack of self-confidence. This invisible filter is theoretically called the affective filter, and it has an important role in the learning (or not) of another language.
Some people have a naturally low affective filter and are relatively confident about learning a second language. However, not everyone is so lucky. Many other people have experienced anxiety and inability to effectively comprehend or communicate well in another language. They sweat, stammer, and butcher the language.
They can’t seem to control what comes out of their mouth. Sometimes they can’t even utter a peep.
The affective filter can make or break proficiency in a second language.
It was because of a high affective filter that I took a long detour on my personal route to proficiency in Spanish. In high school I was able to pick up Spanish relatively quickly. As a senior in high school, my Spanish was much more developed than other native English-speaking students and I was the lone native English speaker in the Advanced Placement Spanish literature class. Most of the students in the class were recent arrivals from Mexico and didn’t speak English.
One day as we were reading Don Quixote, the Spanish teacher began to review irregular past tense verbs that were being used in the story. He wrote two sentences on the board with the Spanish verb traer and we had to choose the correct irregular conjugation. I raised my hand and identified the correct irregular conjugation, traje. Suddenly, one of my classmates began to giggle across the room and she said. “No, traí”. Which of course was incorrect, but I suddenly became confused. The teacher quickly verified that I had answered correctly. I was absolutely mortified and sat there in shame for the rest of the class period, even though I had answered correctly. All I could hear was the giggling.
I never spoke Spanish in front of a native Spanish speaker for almost four years. Every time that someone would talk to me in Spanish, I responded in English.
In college I refused to speak Spanish in my classes and my competence in Spanish was always underestimated and
misidentified. In my third year of Spanish at the university level, one professor did not even believe that I was writing my own essays and made me write an essay in front of her. As I walked out the door, she said, “If you could only speak as well as you write-then I would say you are proficient”.
I responded, “I probably could speak as proficiently as I write. It’s sad that it will never happen”.
I’m not exactly sure what happened and when I began to feel comfortable enough to speak Spanish again. I’m sure it had
something to do with the many parents of the children that I taught who seemed impressed with and appreciative of my attempts to communicate with them. It also had a bit to do with the many native Spanish-speakers who barely even noticed the errors that I frequently made.
Over the years I have naturally learned how to lower my affective filter and have become more confident with my proficiency in Spanish. But every once in a while something happens, like a room full of one hundred Spanish-speaking parents who are upset about something, and my affective filter begins to rise. In those moments I’m typically shocked at the disaster that begins to come out of my mouth. I can turn from an advanced Spanish speaker to a blubbering fool in the blink of an eye. Well, maybe not a blubbering fool, but at least someone who sounds like they just started learning Spanish.
In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.
The Grammar Translation Method:
The Grammar Translation Method is the oldest method of teaching in India. A number of methods and techniques have evolved for the teaching of English and also other foreign languages in the recent past, yet this method is still in use in many part of India. It maintains the mother tongue of the learner as the reference particularly in the process of learning the second/ foreign languages. The main principles on which the Grammar Translation Method is based are the following:
1.Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner.
2.The phraseology and the idiom of the target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation.
3.The structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrast with those of mother tongue.
In this method, while teaching the text book the teacher translates every word and phrase from English into the learners mother tongue. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their mother tongue into English. These exercises in translation are based on various items covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the mother tongue gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of the mother tongue.
Advantages:
1. The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or
words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second
language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some sort of accuracy in understanding
synonyms in the source language and the target language.
2.Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may
ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding
to questions in the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learned what he has taught
them. Communication between the teacher and the learner does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long.
Disadvantages:
1. It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way a child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings; but, in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
2. Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus,
the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even
at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of communicating using English. It has been observed that in a class, which
is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire a habit of speaking English.
Therefore, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught through this method.
3.Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to
another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For example, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expressions as ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’ and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, ‘He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, and ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language.
4.It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have learned a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy.
Conclusion:
The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure to follow. The trusty grammar translation method set the pace for many classrooms for many decades.
Monty Python made fun of the grammar translation method in their film Life of Brian.
The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key[1], is a style of teaching used in teachingforeign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students’ native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition
with communicative language teaching.
Charles Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students’ job to orally recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The students were only given “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included
principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.
Examples:
Inflection : Teacher : I ate the sandwich. Student : I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement : Teacher : He bought the car for half-price.
Student : He bought it for half-price.
Restatement : Teacher : Tell me not to smoke so often.
Student : Don’t smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session :
“Teacher: There’s a cup on the table … repeat
Students: There’s a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There’s a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There’s a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There’s a book on the chair etc.
Historical Background:
The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical circumstances. For its views on language, audiolingualism drew on the work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield.
The prime concern of American Linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. However, because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement.
The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-lingual method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. It was therefore necessary to provide these soldiers with
at least basic verbal communication skills. Unsurprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.
Relationship with other methods and approaches:
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as an extension or development of
the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
The Communicative Approach was founded by Robert Langs:
Psychoanalysis has turned reality on its head: We are taught to think of ourselves as distorters and misperceivers, unreliable slaves to our inner fantasies – especially when we are patients in therapy. But the communicative approach has shown that it is more accurate and compelling to see ourselves as highly reliable perceivers, with the understanding that our most valid perceptions are experienced unconsciously and encoded in the stories we tell to ourselves and others. Knowing how to decode these stories is the key to a truly accurate view of the human emotion-processing mind and emotional life.
The full name of the Communicative Approach (CA) is “The Communicative-Adaptive approach.” This highlights the two
most distinctive features of the CA: first, that it is a new way to understand human emotionally-laden communications and second, that it has shown that the primary function of the emotion-processing mind is to cope with – adapt to – immediate emotionally-charged triggering events.
What is the communicative approach?
The communicative approach (CA) was developed by Robert Langs MD, In the early 1970′s. It is a new theory or paradigm of emotional life and psychoanalysis that is centered on human adaptations to emotionally-charged events–with full appreciation that such adaptations take place both within awareness (consciously) and outside of awareness (unconsciously). The approach gives full credence to the unconscious side of emotional life and has rendered it highly sensible and incontrovertible by discovering a new, validated, and deeply meaningful way of decoding unconscious messages. This procedure-called trigger decoding–has brought forth new and highly illuminating revisions
of our understanding of both emotional life and psychotherapy, and it calls for significant changes in presently accepted
psychoanalytic thinking and practice.
The CA has exposed and offered correctives for much of what’s wrong with our current picture of the emotional mind and today’s psychotherapies-critical errors in thinking and practice that have cause untold suffering throughout the world. In essence, the approach has shown that emotional problems do not arise first and foremost from disturbing inner memories and fantasies or daydreams; nor do they arise primarily from consciously known thoughts and patterns of behavior. Instead, emotional disturbances arise primarily from failed efforts at coping with current emotionally-charged traumas. The present-day focus by mainstream psychoanalysts (MP) on the past and on inner fantasies and memories has been replaced in this CA with a focus on the present, as experienced and reacted to consciously and unconsciously-in brief, the primacy afforded by MP to fantasy and imagination has been replaced by the primacy afforded by the CA.
Demonstrates Proprio-Kinesthetic language learning (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
nstructions
1.
o 1
Show a willingness to communicate. Put the other person at ease by how you present yourself. He is already self-conscious and uncomfortable by the fact that you are having difficulty understanding him. Be encouraging and supportive to the other person. Let him feel there is nothing to be afraid of because you are trying your best to understand and communicate.
o 2
Speak slowly. If the other person knows how to speak and understand English, chances are she is not very familiar with all the words you will use and how you will pronounce them. It will help her digest better what you are trying to say when you speak to her a little bit more slowly than your usual conversation. This gives her the time to process the information in her head. Avoid using any slang terms or idioms, as well. These terms are usually colloquial and are confusing to someone who is learning English in a classroom setting.
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o 3
Use body language. Act out what you're trying to say. Words backed up with body gestures help a lot in expressing yourself. You may feel silly, but you will get your point across.
o 4
Use visual aids. This is most helpful when asking or giving directions to someone who is having trouble understanding you. Draw or use pictures or things to represent ideas, persons or places. It will help make communicating more efficient if you use images that both of you can relate to.
o 5
Keep trying. Sometimes it takes a little bit more effort to communicate, but if you both keep on trying until you get it, it's worth it. Also, remember to have a sense of humor to make the ordeal a bit lighter and the whole experience fun instead of stressful
1. Misperception
o Perception plays a powerful role in the way that people communicate with each other and can greatly influence the quality of the communication taking place. During perception, a person becomes aware of the people, locations, objects and events present, assigning meaning to those things. Meaning is designated based on past experience, first impressions and evolving understandings. This means that through perception people can potentially assign labels and stereotypes to each other, preventing them from communicating with each other in a healthy manner.
Poor Listening
o Whereas "hearing" is a purely physical process, and thus requires little effort, the mental process of "listening" requires a significant amount of attention and effort in order to be effective. Poor listening can lead to messages being distorted or lost, and lead to poor overall communication. People use the communication skill of listening all of the time, yet very little attention is given to how to listen effectively.
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Misunderstood Symbols
o According to "Communication Counts: Getting it Right in College and Life," human communication can be defined as "negotiating symbolic meaning." This means that through verbal communication (language) and nonverbal communication (action and behavior), people use symbols with created meanings. This creates a barrier when the meanings assigned to a symbol don't match up between people communicating.
Cultural Differences
o Cultural differences can confuse meaning and ultimately create a communication barrier. Individualist cultures, such as the United States and Great Britain, focus on individual success and "speaking one's mind."
In contrast, collectivist cultures, such as Asian societies, focus on group success and the use of indirect language organized around respect and authority. Differences between these cultural styles of communication can lead to misunderstandings and an unwillingness to communicate in worse-case scenarios.
Conflict Management Styles
o The way that people manage conflict can directly effect the quality of communication. Individuals with competition-based conflict styles will approach disagreements as a challenge that must be won, disregarding any communication organized to resolve the conflict amicably.
In contrast, individuals whose conflict management style leads them to avoiding conflict altogether are just as unlikely to foster quality communication, as they will withdraw from conflict discussions. Adopting a conflict management style focused on collaboration is more likely to reduce barriers and contribute to healthy conflict management.
Technological Barriers
o When technology is used mediate communication, the potential for misunderstanding is increased and can potentially lead to significant barriers. Technology-based communication, such as phone conversations, text messages and emails remove aspects of the face-to-face interaction found in natural human communication. Without aspects such as nonverbal cues, eye contact and vocal communication, people are more likely to misunderstand messages, causing communication to suffer and potentially leading to conflicts. For example, a text message sent in all capital letters can be interpreted as angry, when the reality may be much different.
• What Are Language Barriers?
• Issues on Language Barriers
1. Judging
o One type of language barrier is judging information. Kimberly Moynahan Gerson of Archeolink.com says people fall into two distinct groups when it comes to communication: People either judge or perceive information. Judgers make use of their preferences and opinions when communicating with others. When they speak, they are very direct, and the person on the receiving end of the message has no problem knowing where they stand on a subject. They also let others know what they want from them by using clear, concise language. They ask others for more information to clarify their viewpoints and to make their final decisions. They also thrive on closure -- and always need an end to the discussion.
Perceiving
o Instead of using their opinion to make decisions toward communicating, the perceivers use the actions of others and their environment to decide how they will communicate their needs to others They are careful not to make judgments based solely on their observations. To get what they want, they state their perceptions and allow the world to decipher what they want. Perceivers are not direct and instead give others subtle clues about what they want. Even when all the information is given, they are never quick to make a final decision. Instead, they may inquire more about the topic so they can make additional perceptions.
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Culture
o CharlotteWorks.org reports that language barriers often coincide with cultural differences, which lead to misunderstandings in the workplace. For instance, a person who speaks very little English might be intimidated or find it frustrating to speak with an English-speaking supervisor. It may also be just as difficult or frustrating for native English-speaking co-workers and supervisors to communicate with co-workers who speak very little English. One downside to such a language barrier is that workers who do not have a strong grasp of the English language are more likely to have an accident on the job due to their inability to understand safety standards in the workplace.
Online Lingo
o Due to the increase in different forms of technology, such as computers, cell phones and other wireless devices -- where communication is short and sweet -- people tend to use online lingo. While there are different ways for a person to get her point across using technology, the lines of communication may also be hard to understand. This is especially true if one person in the conversation uses online lingo that the other person is not familiar with. For instance, if the sender of a message types a message using acronyms such as LOL (laugh out loud) or BRB (be right back), and the receiver is not familiar with this type of language, the receiver of the message cannot comprehend the meaning of the message
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/info_7879672_types-language-barriers.html#ixzz2sXNtivvx
Literary fiction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Literary fiction is a term principally used for certain fictional works that are claimed to hold literary merit.
Despite the fact that all genres have works that are well written, those works are generally not considered literary fiction. To be considered literary, a work usually must be "critically acclaimed" and "serious".[1] In practice, works of literary fiction often are "complex, literate, multilayered novels that wrestle with universal dilemmas".[2]
Literary fiction (a.k.a. mainstream fiction) is usually contrasted with paraliterary fiction (e.g., popular, commercial, or genre fiction). This contrast between these two subsets of fiction is highly controversial amongst critics and scholars who study literature.
Literary fiction is usually not considered a genre, with associated conventions, but there are common characteristics that can help define it.[3]
Characterization
Literary fiction, in general, focuses on the subjects of the narrative to create "introspective, in-depth character studies" of "interesting, complex and developed" characters.[3][4] This contrasts with paraliterary fiction where "generally speaking, the kind of attention that we pay to the subject in literature ... has to be paid to the social and material complexities of the object".[5]
Plot
Literary fiction does not focus on plot as much as paraliterary fiction.[6] Usually, the focus is on the "inner story" of the characters who drive the plot with detailed motivations to elicit "emotional involvement" in the reader.[7][8]
Style
The style of literary fiction is often described as "elegantly written, lyrical, and ... layered".[9]
Tone
The tone of literary fiction is usually serious and, therefore, often darker than paraliterary fiction.[10]
Pacing
The pacing of literary fiction is slower than paraliterary fiction.[10] As Terrence Rafferty notes, "literary fiction, by its nature, allows itself to dawdle, to linger on stray beauties even at the risk of losing its way."[11]
As a genre
Some authors suggest that literary fiction is, in itself, just another genre or set of genres. Samuel R. Delany, for example, notes that the "literary genres might be characterized as the 'tyranny of the subject'" because of the focus on the "subject, the self, [and] psychology".[5] On the other hand, Mort Castle suggests that literary fiction is composed of three genres: literature (i.e., classics), realism, and postmodernist fiction.[12]
Other authors struggle with the expectations of the literary 'genre'. In an interview by Lev Grossman for Time magazine, John Updike lamented that "the category of 'literary fiction' has sprung up recently to torment people like me who just set out to write books, and if anybody wanted to read them, terrific, the more the merrier. But now, no, I'm a genre writer of a sort. I write literary fiction, which is like spy fiction or chick lit".[13] Likewise, on The Charlie Rose Show, he shared that he felt this term, when applied to his work, greatly limited him and his expectations of what might come of his writing, and so does not really like it. He said that all his works are literary simply because "they are written in words".[14]
Alternative definitions
Neal Stephenson has suggested that while any definition will be simplistic there is a general cultural difference between literary and genre fiction, created by who the author is accountable to. Literary novelists are typically supported by patronage via employment at a university or similar institutions, with the continuation of such positions determined not by book sales but by critical acclaim by other established literary authors and critics. Genre fiction writers seek to support themselves by book sales and write to please a mass audience.[15]
Monday, February 17, 2014
Languages and Travel Information
Rwanda is located in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of 10,942,950 (2011) and the arrival of 666,000 (2010) tourists a year. Are you traveling or researching Rwanda? Following is some information on the languages and country. The TRAVEL EYE RWANDAoffers our Lifetime Members printable and downloadable language sheets with no monthly costs ever. With more than 16 languages covering over 2.3 billion people worldwide, we can help make your travels to Rwanda and beyond even more fun!
If you are traveling to Rwanda or just looking for some more information, we can provide some Rwanda travel language help. We also have some word categories for travel to Rwanda. We’re always working on new languages and more travel words for the languages we do have. Our Lifetime Members have unlimited access to download and print our language sheets. We have the best language sheets on the web, guaranteed.
National Languages of Rwanda
English You’re good to go!
French SpeakSheets available!
Kinyarwanda Not yet available
Travel to these cities in Rwanda and beyond!
Always wanted to visit or return to Rwanda? We provide some great travel info for the following cities in Rwanda.
Travel to Kigali, Rwanda
745,261 residents
Rwanda Information
• Region: Sub-Saharan Africa
• Long Name: Republic of Rwanda
• Country Code: RWA
• Currency Unit: Rwandan franc
Rwanda Population
• Population: 10,942,950 (2011)
• Population, 65+: 2.68107 (2011)
• Population, 15-64: 54.55332 (2011)
• Population, 0-14: 42.76561 (2011)
• Income share held by lowest 10%: 2.13 (2011)
• Income share held by highest 10%: 43.22 (2011)
Rwanda Internet, Mobile and News
• Internet users: 766,006.5 (2011)
• Internet users per 100 people: 7 (2011)
• Fixed broadband subscribers: 3,651 (2011)
• Fixed broadband subscribers per 100 people: 0.03336 (2011)
• Daily newspapers per 1,000 people: unspecified
• Mobile cellular subscriptions: 4,446,194 (2011)
• Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people: 40.63067 (2011)
Rwanda Transportation
• Passenger cars per 1,000 people: 2 (2009)
• Motor vehicles per 1,000 people: 5 (2009)
• Rail lines (km): unspecified
Rwanda Tourism
• International tourism revenue (US$): 94,000,000 (2010)
• International tourism arrivals: 666,000 (2010)
• ATM’s per 100,000 adults: 0.81437 (2009)
Rwanda Economy
• GDP (US$): 6,377,408,665 (2011)
• GDP growth (annual %): 8.6 (2011)
• GDP per capita (US$): 582.78697 (2011)
• Employment in agriculture: 78.8 (2005)
• Employment in services: 16.6 (2005)
• Employment in industry: 78.8 (2005)
• New businesses registered: 3,028 (2009)
Rwanda Health
• Life expectancy: 55.39459 (2011)
• Health expenditure per capita (US$): 55.50948 (2010)
• Adult males who smoke: unspecified
• Adult females who smoke: unspecified
• Nurses and midwives per 1,000 people: 0.448 (2010)
• Hospital beds per 1,000 people: 1.6 (2007)
Rwanda Environment
• Mammal species, threatened: 20 (2011)
• Fish species, threatened: 9 (2011)
• Bird species, threatened: 12 (2011)
• Droughts, floods, extreme temps (% of pop): 1.29597 (2009)
• Marine protected areas: unspecified
Tuesday, September 10, 2013
21KAMENA
UMUNSI MWIZA KURI WOWE MUVANDIMWE UGIZE AMHIRWE YO GUFUNGURA IYI PAJI
URAKOZE KUBANA NA TWE.
Tuesday, May 29, 2012
A Man of the People
A Man of the People
A Man of the People is a 1966 satirical novel by Chinua Achebe. It is Achebe's fourth novel. The novel tells the story of the young and educated Odili, the narrator, and his conflict with Chief Nanga, his former teacher who enters a career in politics in an unnamed modern African country. Odili represents the changing younger generation; Nanga represents the traditional customs of Nigeria. The book ends with a military coup, similar to the real-life coups of Johnson Aguiyi-Ironsi, Chukwuma Kaduna Nzeogwu and Yakubu Gowo
Sunday, March 11, 2012
Saturday, January 7, 2012
UTAGANIRIYE NA SE..”
Igihe cyo kwitegura itangira ry’amashuri kigeze ku musozo,abana bamwe bongeye kwerekeza uruhanga ku babyeyi kuko babatezeho urufunguzo rubasubiza ku mashuri.Ababyeyi nabo ntibigeze bakura agatima ku bana kuko inshingano z’umurezi n’umubyeyi utari gito zitagira inzibacyuho;uburere bukanyura mu nzira zitandukanye ariko zose zuzuzanya .
Ibiganiro hagati y’umwana n’umubyeyi bikaba ku isonga ,bigashimangirwa no kubonera umwana iby’ingenzi akanera mu buzim n’imyigire ye hatirengagijwe igenzura umubyeyi akwiye gukora yabitegura cyangwa byamutungura ariko ntikabure nk’imperekeza ngombwa mu burezi.Bikunganirwa n’uko umubyeyi yakira ,yumva imivugire yawe akanitegereza imikorere rusange yawe nk’iyo hari umukoro usabwa kumufasha mu gihe cyihariye nk’ibiruhuko.Aha niho yishushanyiriza intumbero yawe akagira ikizere muri wowe cyangwa ukamuhangayikisha ,agataho agucyaha cyangwa akagushishikaza.
Kuganira n’ababyeyi ni ibyagaciro ,ntibikwiye kuburirwa umwanya;Umwana si nk’igiti cy’ishyamba kimeza ,aho imbuto zisakara ku bw’inyoni na Serwakira nyuma imvura ,akazuba n’akayaga bigasimburana uko bucya bwira,ngo abasaruzi bazabe ibiguruka nibarumbya bagurukire iyo bweze.Uburere ni igikorwa gitegurwa , kigira umugendo kinyuramo kandi giha umusaruro umuryango n’igihugu, haba habaye ikiurumbo n’ubundi bikagenda bityo.
Umubyeyi niwe ufata iyambere ,agatangira inzira yo kurera ,anakeneye urubuga rwo kumenya uko uburere n’uburezi bijyenda ,akabyerekwa n’umusaruro w’amanota mu ishuri n’impinduka mu mikorere n’imyumvire nko kudata igihe !,Kwibwiriza !,Kuyobora abakuri inyuma mu gihe umubyeyi atari bugufi;kuganira n’ukurera bimwereka icyo akwiye kugabanya ,kongera no guhindura mu burezi.
Babyeyi ni byiza ko muboneka, nyuma ya byinshi byiza mukora ,nimutinyure abana banyu bakeneye kubereka ibyo bifuza birenze ibyo bakeneye bibafasha kwiga ,bakeneye kumenya ingero n’imirongo ngenderwaho byabafashije ubwanyu kugera aho mugeze kimwe n’ibyababujije kugera ku nzozi mwari mufite mu gihe nk’icyo barimo ;nk’uko inkuru mbarirano ituba, nibabimenya bivuye ku batari nyirubwite bizabashyikaho byagabanyirijwe icyanga.Mwibukeko iterambere ryose abana bashobora kugeraho ari mwe barikesha maze mu barinde ibiiza bishobora kubangamira uburere bwabo mu gihe ntacyo mutakoze ngo mubahe amafaranga n’ibikoresho byose bifatika.
Bakeneye umurava n’ubunararibonye bibakomokaho ;ntimukemere igisa n’urukuta cyose cyababera urubibi ,bibaza byinshi ,bafite imishinga n’inzozi byinshi nimwe bo kubafasha kubyumva kurushaho.Kwereka abana ko muhuze buri gihe ,bituma nabo baharanira kubaha umutuzo wose mukeneye,”Ubundi njye si mba nifuza kuvugana na papa..!”
Babyeyi ,ntacyo abana bakeneye mutabasha kubabonera ,umuti si ukubima amatwi n’amaso ngo “sakindi izaba ibyara ibindi! ”Hari byinshi bya rwana mwe mwabona ko bitari ngombwa kimwe n’uko iyo umwana yibuka ko uzi ibyo akaneye utari wamubonera ategereza yizeye ,aba azi ko ari umutwaro atitwaje wenyine ,bityo ntanyure mu nzira zamwangiza,nawe ugakora iyo bwabaga ngo umuhe umuti nk’umubyeyi.
Bana ni umugisha,kugira ugutega amatwi ukamwihishurira wese kandi hagati yanyu hari Giteera:ni umugenzo w’ingirakamaro kuganira n’abakuru,ni umuti ukuvura ubufura n’isoko y’ijabo n’ijambo kuko uba uzirikana ko uko ushingura,n’umutimanama wawe wa cyana nyine, bifite umugenzuzi kandi ukaba utamushyika imbere utambaye umwambaro w’ubukwe ,ugahora nyine ureba niba wabukereye.Cyane cyane iyo wabyitoje kare.
Tera intambwe ,wereke umubyeyi ko ari umurezi wawe , ko umujishi ufatiyeho ari we wawukosheje maze ubyaze umusaruro amahirwe yose agushyira hafi ngo utere imbere kuko ni cyo cyonyine agutezeho,nturi igishoro ngo azakungukeho kuko nawe azi ejo he hashize atazi neza aharamuka.Gusa umwijeje utamuryarya ko uzaba umugabo ,ari nayo nyiturano ye, byaba bimuhagije.Ntuzigere urambirwa kumutega yombi,”Aba bana barwaye amatwi?”,inama ze ntizihagwa kandi akanwa ke ntikabeshya!Ni akabando kaciwe mu bisekuruza bya kare kakakwambutsa iminsi ya none,ukazakaraga ubuvivi cyane cyane iyo ubera Imfura umuryango n’igihugu.Ibi ntiwabigeraho uhuzwa n’umubyeyi n’udukaratasi tw’ibyo ukeka ko ukeneye kuri we cyangwa umuha Babyeyi! Ahubwo huzwa na we n’umwanya wo kumwerurira Inzitizi n’intsinzi ,Inyota n’Umwijuto byawe.
Ganira n’abakuru kuko urugamba rwo kuba uwo GUSIGA INKURU IMUSOZI rutsindwa no kugira IMBANZIRIZA MUSHINGA mu bakuru,ABAKURU ni bo bo kugusogongeza ku Ntango y’ABAKURAMBERE ;none se niba utaganiriye na So uzabara nkuru ki?”UTAGANIRIYE NA SE ntamenya icyo Sekuru yasize avuze!.
kajeyson@gmail.com
Languages and Applied Linguistics
INES RUHENGERI
Sunday, October 9, 2011
LINGUISTICA
] Variation and universality
Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the paradigm of generative grammar, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties.
In generativist theory, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as universal grammar (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic. Typologists and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to language universals, or universals of language.
Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience. For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the Latin language spoken by the Ancient Romans developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin. In other cases, contact between languages — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence. English much and Spanish mucho are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other;[13] nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see False cognate).
Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of sign languages (such as Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language. The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages. Other known and suspected sign language isolates include Kata Kolok, Nicaraguan Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language.
[edit] Structures
Ferdinand de Saussure
It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around grammatical categories such as noun and verb, nominative and accusative, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative-absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations).
In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in "the chimpanzee's lips") or a clause to contain a clause (as in "I think that it's raining"). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by Jespersen), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of Noam Chomsky's book Syntactic Structures,[14] which presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.
Chomsky used a context-free grammar augmented with transformations. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example GPSG, for English). It has been demonstrated, however, that human languages (most notably Dutch and Swiss German) include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.[15]
[edit] Selected sub-fields
[edit] Historical linguistics
Main article: Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics studies the history and evolution of languages through the comparative method. Often the aim of historical linguistics is to classify languages in language families descending from a common ancestor. This involves comparison of elements in different languages to detect possible cognates in order to be able to reconstruct how different languages have changed over time. This also involves the study of etymology, the study of the history of single words. Historical linguistics is also called "diachronic linguistics" and is opposed to "synchronic linguistics" that study languages in a given moment in time without regarding its previous stages. In universities in the United States, the historic perspective is often out of fashion. Historical linguistics was among the first linguistic disciplines to emerge and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. The shift in focus to a synchronic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant in western linguistics with Noam Chomsky's emphasis on the study of the synchronic and universal aspects of language.
[edit] Semiotics
Main article: Semiotics
Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language.
[edit] Descriptive linguistics and language documentation
Main article: Descriptive linguistics
Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics linguists have been concerned with describing and documenting languages previously unknown to science. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s descriptive linguistics became the main strand within American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid 20th century. The rise of American descriptive linguistics was caused by the concern with describing the languages of indigenous peoples that were (and are) rapidly moving towards extinction. The ethnographic focus of the original Boasian type of descriptive linguistics occasioned the development of disciplines such as Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, disciplines that investigate the relations between language, culture and society.
The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has since become more important outside of North America as well, as the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages has become a primary focus in many of the worlds' linguistics programs. Language description is a work intensive endeavour usually requiring years of field work for the linguist to learn a language sufficiently well to write a reference grammar of it. The further task of language documentation requires the linguist to collect a preferably large corpus of texts and recordings of sound and video in the language, and to arrange for its storage in accessible formats in open repositories where it may be of the best use for further research by other researchers.[16]
[edit] Applied linguistics
Main article: Applied linguistics
Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, lexicography and translation. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer[who?], since applied linguists focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, not simply "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics; moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g. conversation analysis) and anthropology.
Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.
Linguistic analysis is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.[17] This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted in either the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter, or in an international lingua franca like English.[17] Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.[17] Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done by either private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.[17]
[edit] Description and prescription
Main articles: descriptive linguistics and linguistic prescription
Linguistics is descriptive; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.
Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.
[edit] Speech and writing
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken (or signed) language is more fundamental than written language. This is because:
• Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;
• Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;
• People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing;
Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.
The study of writing systems themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.
[edit] History
Main article: History of linguistics
The earliest known linguistic activities date to Iron Age India (around the 8th century BC)) with the analysis of Sanskrit. The Pratishakhyas were a proto-linguistic ad hoc collection of observations about mutations to a given corpus particular to a given Vedic school. Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the Vedanga discipline of Vyakarana, the earliest surviving account of which is the work of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BC), who looked back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to. Pāṇini formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure.
Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; Patanjali in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Pāṇini. In the later centuries BC, Pāṇini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it. Bhartṛhari (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter.
Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as Plato's Cratylus. The first important advancement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet. As a result of the introduction of writing, poetry such as the Homeric poems became written and several editions were created and commented, forming the basis of philology and critic. The sophists and Socrates introduced dialectics as a new text genre. Aristotle defined the logic of speech and the argument, and his works on rhetoric and poetics developed the understating of tragedy, poetry, and public discussions as text genres.
One of the greatest of the Greek grammarians was Apollonius Dyscolus.[18] Apollonius wrote more than thirty treatises on questions of syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and more. In the 4th c., Aelius Donatus compiled the Latin grammar Ars Grammatica that was to be the defining school text through the Middle Ages.[19] In De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), Dante Alighieri expanded the scope of linguistic enquiry from the traditional languages of antiquity to include the language of the day.[citation needed]
In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760, in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology.[citation needed]
Sir William Jones noted that Sanskrit shared many common features with classical Latin and Greek, notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the case system. This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the Indo-European language family. He began the study of comparative linguistics, which would uncover more language families and branches.
In 19th century Europe the study of linguistics was largely from the perspective of philology (or historical linguistics). Some early-19th-century linguists were Jakob Grimm, who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as Grimm's Law – in 1822; Karl Verner, who formulated Verner's Law
Much modern linguistic research, particularly within the paradigm of generative grammar, has concerned itself with trying to account for differences between languages of the world. This has worked on the assumption that if human linguistic ability is narrowly constrained by human biology, then all languages must share certain fundamental properties.
In generativist theory, the collection of fundamental properties all languages share are referred to as universal grammar (UG). The specific characteristics of this universal grammar are a much debated topic. Typologists and non-generativist linguists usually refer simply to language universals, or universals of language.
Similarities between languages can have a number of different origins. In the simplest case, universal properties may be due to universal aspects of human experience. For example, all humans experience water, and all human languages have a word for water. Other similarities may be due to common descent: the Latin language spoken by the Ancient Romans developed into Spanish in Spain and Italian in Italy; similarities between Spanish and Italian are thus in many cases due to both being descended from Latin. In other cases, contact between languages — particularly where many speakers are bilingual — can lead to much borrowing of structures, as well as words. Similarity may also, of course, be due to coincidence. English much and Spanish mucho are not descended from the same form or borrowed from one language to the other;[13] nor is the similarity due to innate linguistic knowledge (see False cognate).
Arguments in favor of language universals have also come from documented cases of sign languages (such as Al-Sayyid Bedouin Sign Language) developing in communities of congenitally deaf people, independently of spoken language. The properties of these sign languages conform generally to many of the properties of spoken languages. Other known and suspected sign language isolates include Kata Kolok, Nicaraguan Sign Language, and Providence Island Sign Language.
[edit] Structures
Ferdinand de Saussure
It has been perceived that languages tend to be organized around grammatical categories such as noun and verb, nominative and accusative, or present and past, though, importantly, not exclusively so. The grammar of a language is organized around such fundamental categories, though many languages express the relationships between words and syntax in other discrete ways (cf. some Bantu languages for noun/verb relations, ergative-absolutive systems for case relations, several Native American languages for tense/aspect relations).
In addition to making substantial use of discrete categories, language has the important property that it organizes elements into recursive structures; this allows, for example, a noun phrase to contain another noun phrase (as in "the chimpanzee's lips") or a clause to contain a clause (as in "I think that it's raining"). Though recursion in grammar was implicitly recognized much earlier (for example by Jespersen), the importance of this aspect of language became more popular after the 1957 publication of Noam Chomsky's book Syntactic Structures,[14] which presented a formal grammar of a fragment of English. Prior to this, the most detailed descriptions of linguistic systems were of phonological or morphological systems.
Chomsky used a context-free grammar augmented with transformations. Since then, following the trend of Chomskyan linguistics, context-free grammars have been written for substantial fragments of various languages (for example GPSG, for English). It has been demonstrated, however, that human languages (most notably Dutch and Swiss German) include cross-serial dependencies, which cannot be handled adequately by context-free grammars.[15]
[edit] Selected sub-fields
[edit] Historical linguistics
Main article: Historical linguistics
Historical linguistics studies the history and evolution of languages through the comparative method. Often the aim of historical linguistics is to classify languages in language families descending from a common ancestor. This involves comparison of elements in different languages to detect possible cognates in order to be able to reconstruct how different languages have changed over time. This also involves the study of etymology, the study of the history of single words. Historical linguistics is also called "diachronic linguistics" and is opposed to "synchronic linguistics" that study languages in a given moment in time without regarding its previous stages. In universities in the United States, the historic perspective is often out of fashion. Historical linguistics was among the first linguistic disciplines to emerge and was the most widely practiced form of linguistics in the late 19th century. The shift in focus to a synchronic perspective started with Saussure and became predominant in western linguistics with Noam Chomsky's emphasis on the study of the synchronic and universal aspects of language.
[edit] Semiotics
Main article: Semiotics
Semiotics is the study of sign processes (semiosis), or signification and communication, signs and symbols, both individually and grouped into sign systems, including the study of how meaning is constructed and understood. Semioticians often do not restrict themselves to linguistic communication when studying the use of signs but extend the meaning of "sign" to cover all kinds of cultural symbols. Nonetheless semiotic disciplines closely related to linguistics are literary studies, discourse analysis, text linguistics, and philosophy of language.
[edit] Descriptive linguistics and language documentation
Main article: Descriptive linguistics
Since the inception of the discipline of linguistics linguists have been concerned with describing and documenting languages previously unknown to science. Starting with Franz Boas in the early 1900s descriptive linguistics became the main strand within American linguistics until the rise of formal structural linguistics in the mid 20th century. The rise of American descriptive linguistics was caused by the concern with describing the languages of indigenous peoples that were (and are) rapidly moving towards extinction. The ethnographic focus of the original Boasian type of descriptive linguistics occasioned the development of disciplines such as Sociolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, and linguistic anthropology, disciplines that investigate the relations between language, culture and society.
The emphasis on linguistic description and documentation has since become more important outside of North America as well, as the documentation of rapidly dying indigenous languages has become a primary focus in many of the worlds' linguistics programs. Language description is a work intensive endeavour usually requiring years of field work for the linguist to learn a language sufficiently well to write a reference grammar of it. The further task of language documentation requires the linguist to collect a preferably large corpus of texts and recordings of sound and video in the language, and to arrange for its storage in accessible formats in open repositories where it may be of the best use for further research by other researchers.[16]
[edit] Applied linguistics
Main article: Applied linguistics
Linguists are largely concerned with finding and describing the generalities and varieties both within particular languages and among all languages. Applied linguistics takes the results of those findings and "applies" them to other areas. Linguistic research is commonly applied to areas such as language education, lexicography and translation. "Applied linguistics" has been argued to be something of a misnomer[who?], since applied linguists focus on making sense of and engineering solutions for real-world linguistic problems, not simply "applying" existing technical knowledge from linguistics; moreover, they commonly apply technical knowledge from multiple sources, such as sociology (e.g. conversation analysis) and anthropology.
Today, computers are widely used in many areas of applied linguistics. Speech synthesis and speech recognition use phonetic and phonemic knowledge to provide voice interfaces to computers. Applications of computational linguistics in machine translation, computer-assisted translation, and natural language processing are areas of applied linguistics which have come to the forefront. Their influence has had an effect on theories of syntax and semantics, as modeling syntactic and semantic theories on computers constraints.
Linguistic analysis is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics used by many governments to verify the claimed nationality of people seeking asylum who do not hold the necessary documentation to prove their claim.[17] This often takes the form of an interview by personnel in an immigration department. Depending on the country, this interview is conducted in either the asylum seeker's native language through an interpreter, or in an international lingua franca like English.[17] Australia uses the former method, while Germany employs the latter; the Netherlands uses either method depending on the languages involved.[17] Tape recordings of the interview then undergo language analysis, which can be done by either private contractors or within a department of the government. In this analysis, linguistic features of the asylum seeker are used by analysts to make a determination about the speaker's nationality. The reported findings of the linguistic analysis can play a critical role in the government's decision on the refugee status of the asylum seeker.[17]
[edit] Description and prescription
Main articles: descriptive linguistics and linguistic prescription
Linguistics is descriptive; linguists describe and explain features of language without making subjective judgments on whether a particular feature is "right" or "wrong". This is analogous to practice in other sciences: a zoologist studies the animal kingdom without making subjective judgments on whether a particular animal is better or worse than another.
Prescription, on the other hand, is an attempt to promote particular linguistic usages over others, often favouring a particular dialect or "acrolect". This may have the aim of establishing a linguistic standard, which can aid communication over large geographical areas. It may also, however, be an attempt by speakers of one language or dialect to exert influence over speakers of other languages or dialects (see Linguistic imperialism). An extreme version of prescriptivism can be found among censors, who attempt to eradicate words and structures which they consider to be destructive to society.
[edit] Speech and writing
Most contemporary linguists work under the assumption that spoken (or signed) language is more fundamental than written language. This is because:
• Speech appears to be universal to all human beings capable of producing and hearing it, while there have been many cultures and speech communities that lack written communication;
• Speech evolved before human beings invented writing;
• People learn to speak and process spoken languages more easily and much earlier than writing;
Linguists nonetheless agree that the study of written language can be worthwhile and valuable. For research that relies on corpus linguistics and computational linguistics, written language is often much more convenient for processing large amounts of linguistic data. Large corpora of spoken language are difficult to create and hard to find, and are typically transcribed and written. Additionally, linguists have turned to text-based discourse occurring in various formats of computer-mediated communication as a viable site for linguistic inquiry.
The study of writing systems themselves is in any case considered a branch of linguistics.
[edit] History
Main article: History of linguistics
The earliest known linguistic activities date to Iron Age India (around the 8th century BC)) with the analysis of Sanskrit. The Pratishakhyas were a proto-linguistic ad hoc collection of observations about mutations to a given corpus particular to a given Vedic school. Systematic study of these texts gives rise to the Vedanga discipline of Vyakarana, the earliest surviving account of which is the work of Pāṇini (c. 520 – 460 BC), who looked back on what are probably several generations of grammarians, whose opinions he occasionally refers to. Pāṇini formulates close to 4,000 rules which together form a compact generative grammar of Sanskrit. Inherent in his analytic approach are the concepts of the phoneme, the morpheme and the root. Due to its focus on brevity, his grammar has a highly unintuitive structure.
Indian linguistics maintained a high level for several centuries; Patanjali in the 2nd century BC still actively criticizes Pāṇini. In the later centuries BC, Pāṇini's grammar came to be seen as prescriptive, and commentators came to be fully dependent on it. Bhartṛhari (c. 450 – 510) theorized the act of speech as being made up of four stages: first, conceptualization of an idea, second, its verbalization and sequencing (articulation) and third, delivery of speech into atmospheric air, the interpretation of speech by the listener, the interpreter.
Western linguistics begins in Classical Antiquity with grammatical speculation such as Plato's Cratylus. The first important advancement of the Greeks was the creation of the alphabet. As a result of the introduction of writing, poetry such as the Homeric poems became written and several editions were created and commented, forming the basis of philology and critic. The sophists and Socrates introduced dialectics as a new text genre. Aristotle defined the logic of speech and the argument, and his works on rhetoric and poetics developed the understating of tragedy, poetry, and public discussions as text genres.
One of the greatest of the Greek grammarians was Apollonius Dyscolus.[18] Apollonius wrote more than thirty treatises on questions of syntax, semantics, morphology, prosody, orthography, dialectology, and more. In the 4th c., Aelius Donatus compiled the Latin grammar Ars Grammatica that was to be the defining school text through the Middle Ages.[19] In De vulgari eloquentia ("On the Eloquence of Vernacular"), Dante Alighieri expanded the scope of linguistic enquiry from the traditional languages of antiquity to include the language of the day.[citation needed]
In the Middle East, the Persian linguist Sibawayh made a detailed and professional description of Arabic in 760, in his monumental work, Al-kitab fi al-nahw (الكتاب في النحو, The Book on Grammar), bringing many linguistic aspects of language to light. In his book he distinguished phonetics from phonology.[citation needed]
Sir William Jones noted that Sanskrit shared many common features with classical Latin and Greek, notably verb roots and grammatical structures, such as the case system. This led to the theory that all languages sprung from a common source and to the discovery of the Indo-European language family. He began the study of comparative linguistics, which would uncover more language families and branches.
In 19th century Europe the study of linguistics was largely from the perspective of philology (or historical linguistics). Some early-19th-century linguists were Jakob Grimm, who devised a principle of consonantal shifts in pronunciation – known as Grimm's Law – in 1822; Karl Verner, who formulated Verner's Law
Thursday, August 4, 2011
Incuti magara burya ntabwo zibonekera ntamunoza musangira utwanyu nk’abaguzanya mu gitondo urubanza rwaza ntuhamubone agahimba impamvu’ agamije kwiyerurutsa ati mfite akazi kenshi n’ubu ngubu ndi kure n’ubwo ukwezi kutarapfa ariko ako si ababazo
ndatuma umwaana aze akurebe
Ntutungurwe n’ukw inkuri ishir’utamurabutswe abo utazi mutajya imbibI bikabazindura bagashyika uko bari kose ntacyo baguhishe /ineza ‘aho iri irangwa no guca bugufi ntigirirwa gusa uwuzi ngw’azayikwishyure.
Umuryango ugukuyeho amaboko
Umuvandimwa akakwiyibagiza
Uwo mwonse rimwe akakwihakana
Wo muziranye ati baga wifashe uti mbayuwande?ko binyobeye !
Ugatizw’ ikiganza na rubanda
iZuba rikongera rikarasa .
BAAT CM ft NEG G THE GEN. REACORED 16th june 2011
ndatuma umwaana aze akurebe
Ntutungurwe n’ukw inkuri ishir’utamurabutswe abo utazi mutajya imbibI bikabazindura bagashyika uko bari kose ntacyo baguhishe /ineza ‘aho iri irangwa no guca bugufi ntigirirwa gusa uwuzi ngw’azayikwishyure.
Umuryango ugukuyeho amaboko
Umuvandimwa akakwiyibagiza
Uwo mwonse rimwe akakwihakana
Wo muziranye ati baga wifashe uti mbayuwande?ko binyobeye !
Ugatizw’ ikiganza na rubanda
iZuba rikongera rikarasa .
BAAT CM ft NEG G THE GEN. REACORED 16th june 2011
Tuesday, July 26, 2011
“Does every Human Being qualify to be called PHILOSOPHER?”
“Does every Human Being qualify to be called PHILOSOPHER?”
On Earth, from long ago, the origins of both life and philosophy are not too distant, as well, their battle field is the world and Actors are Human Beings with regard to their surroundings; philosophy as a considerable co-walker of life is known early from 600 Y.B.C. from then people are qualified Philosopher according to philosophical consideration as independent in time-period and place-realizations of an Entity to qualify. Thus in history people who are verily eligible to be called philosophy the same eligibility will change in centuries succession ,with evolution People discover more as they get old, curiosity furthers with experience. “Only the route towards philosophical life determines the quality of your philosophy”
As matter of fact, the chronology and the space changed a lot philosophical concepts: requirements or life conditions brought Humanity to philosophy and to make it a career ,it was enough to sort out an ancestral model Wise to coop the way of thinking, acting and of living in general, How, not only to benefit the Humanity surroundings –the environment-but also to catch the real sense facing solutions to different W-Questions that opposes life to Humanity.
There are some criteria to be called philosopher a part from having fixed a guide liner philosopher, place localization also matters, bright philosopher anciently are Milesians(Greece) plus they Linked Neighbors, Westerners or simply they come from North Hemisphere since the are the first to raise curiosity spirit and to experiment grounds of they curiosity upon life: cosmology, concept of universe, Religion and Christianity and later on Rebirth” Renaissance “and enlightenment (18th Century) they lived philosophy and were qualified philosophers. However regardless of traditional thematic borders some ancient philosophers and school did not register though philosophy was active in their daily life, case of traditional Rwandan ITORERO ,the thinking was enhanced, critic mindset was upraised.
As tools of philosophy growth to become rigid , circles of scholars are most highlight once a model ancestral was chosen to be imitated, followers were gathered to transmit and to inherit Hands out case type of primitive and ancestral philosophers Thales, Anaximander and Anaxmenes. Some of their theories are still valuable like Theorem of famous philosophers-scientists.
To note that fathers of philosophy fully did not attend such actual schools or their being scholar instructed in domains impurely philosophical rather than philosophy itself helped them to carry out realizations that proved they were thirsty of curiosity, they always dreamt to light each and every thing or think at their right. Through their disciples circles or schools their ideas were conveyed generation to generation .This is at the foot of historical era.
From Modern Era philosophy did not neuter its poles, it walks side by side with politics, literature/poetry and leisure/entertainment,..
Mostly with Contemporary Period philosophy changed” who is philosopher “and how does this attain philosophical qualities ,the flow to philosophical life ;its personal roles together with the package he/she amassed which all need the judgment by an independent jury .Tangible actions are relate to sure sources and lastly valuable as philosophy by Professional Teams or experienced Boards supplemented by your initial effort.
Philosophy is actually academic, taught as academic course/programme, its outcomes are nowadays professional and recognized both by their achievements and certificates they hold in the domain.
Philosophy with Modern era changed also its scope ,a philosopher comes from any side of the world ,a unique condition is success specialization from school and of course from the field of philosophy ;we no longer only know Plato ,Socrate ,Saint Thomas d’acquin and Hellenistic school but we also speak of philosophers like Alex Kagame ,Julius NYERERE ,many Philosophers from all corners of Africa and the world at large and their schools are live from their Works ,Novels ,Sayings ,… They one again have been impassively assisted by Committee Philosophical congress, magazine or by recognized Agencies to academically asses they Works in relation to their own life for at last a philosophical recognition.
In conclusion, on one hand, during Pre-philosophy period Westerners in general and Helenians in particular having been inherited from their model patriarchs and their traditional schools they qualified and they were registered “called philosophy.”
On another hand contemporary philosophy does not encounter any spatial barriers the only ground matter is professionalism one you have attended successively academic school of philosophy as far as philosophy is considered as a conditional modern instruction to first of all fulfill any person qualifies to be called philosopher.
------------------------------------- END -----------------------------
On Earth, from long ago, the origins of both life and philosophy are not too distant, as well, their battle field is the world and Actors are Human Beings with regard to their surroundings; philosophy as a considerable co-walker of life is known early from 600 Y.B.C. from then people are qualified Philosopher according to philosophical consideration as independent in time-period and place-realizations of an Entity to qualify. Thus in history people who are verily eligible to be called philosophy the same eligibility will change in centuries succession ,with evolution People discover more as they get old, curiosity furthers with experience. “Only the route towards philosophical life determines the quality of your philosophy”
As matter of fact, the chronology and the space changed a lot philosophical concepts: requirements or life conditions brought Humanity to philosophy and to make it a career ,it was enough to sort out an ancestral model Wise to coop the way of thinking, acting and of living in general, How, not only to benefit the Humanity surroundings –the environment-but also to catch the real sense facing solutions to different W-Questions that opposes life to Humanity.
There are some criteria to be called philosopher a part from having fixed a guide liner philosopher, place localization also matters, bright philosopher anciently are Milesians(Greece) plus they Linked Neighbors, Westerners or simply they come from North Hemisphere since the are the first to raise curiosity spirit and to experiment grounds of they curiosity upon life: cosmology, concept of universe, Religion and Christianity and later on Rebirth” Renaissance “and enlightenment (18th Century) they lived philosophy and were qualified philosophers. However regardless of traditional thematic borders some ancient philosophers and school did not register though philosophy was active in their daily life, case of traditional Rwandan ITORERO ,the thinking was enhanced, critic mindset was upraised.
As tools of philosophy growth to become rigid , circles of scholars are most highlight once a model ancestral was chosen to be imitated, followers were gathered to transmit and to inherit Hands out case type of primitive and ancestral philosophers Thales, Anaximander and Anaxmenes. Some of their theories are still valuable like Theorem of famous philosophers-scientists.
To note that fathers of philosophy fully did not attend such actual schools or their being scholar instructed in domains impurely philosophical rather than philosophy itself helped them to carry out realizations that proved they were thirsty of curiosity, they always dreamt to light each and every thing or think at their right. Through their disciples circles or schools their ideas were conveyed generation to generation .This is at the foot of historical era.
From Modern Era philosophy did not neuter its poles, it walks side by side with politics, literature/poetry and leisure/entertainment,..
Mostly with Contemporary Period philosophy changed” who is philosopher “and how does this attain philosophical qualities ,the flow to philosophical life ;its personal roles together with the package he/she amassed which all need the judgment by an independent jury .Tangible actions are relate to sure sources and lastly valuable as philosophy by Professional Teams or experienced Boards supplemented by your initial effort.
Philosophy is actually academic, taught as academic course/programme, its outcomes are nowadays professional and recognized both by their achievements and certificates they hold in the domain.
Philosophy with Modern era changed also its scope ,a philosopher comes from any side of the world ,a unique condition is success specialization from school and of course from the field of philosophy ;we no longer only know Plato ,Socrate ,Saint Thomas d’acquin and Hellenistic school but we also speak of philosophers like Alex Kagame ,Julius NYERERE ,many Philosophers from all corners of Africa and the world at large and their schools are live from their Works ,Novels ,Sayings ,… They one again have been impassively assisted by Committee Philosophical congress, magazine or by recognized Agencies to academically asses they Works in relation to their own life for at last a philosophical recognition.
In conclusion, on one hand, during Pre-philosophy period Westerners in general and Helenians in particular having been inherited from their model patriarchs and their traditional schools they qualified and they were registered “called philosophy.”
On another hand contemporary philosophy does not encounter any spatial barriers the only ground matter is professionalism one you have attended successively academic school of philosophy as far as philosophy is considered as a conditional modern instruction to first of all fulfill any person qualifies to be called philosopher.
------------------------------------- END -----------------------------
Wednesday, October 6, 2010
Friday, January 9, 2009
Tuesday, October 28, 2008
Tuesday, October 7, 2008
BYARI BISHYUSHYE
Mu rwego rwo kwitegura umunsi mukuru ngaruka mwaka wa le 02 10 , Hari abasore twegEranye turaganira tugera ku bitari bike.
Igishimishije ni uko aho buri wese ari akomeza kurwana ishyaka uko bishoboka kose.
Ku bwanyje ntekereza ABANA TWARERANYWE nita KANDI NISE IMPANZI kuko ari cyo mbifuriza, bikaba bigaragaza ubushobozi ;INTEGO ZANJYE NI WHAT DO YOU WANT TO DO BEFORE YOU DIE cfr www.theburiedlife.com .By'umwihariko kuri abo twareranywe nifuza MY EXCELLENCY BE THEIR HONOR WHILE MY WICKNESS MY SHAME.
Mbifurige guhora mwesa umuhigo wo kuba sample wherever be .
Mu gihe twizihiza UMUNANI IRARIDUTSE bamwe muri mu mabazwa anyuranye GOOD LUCK"
ABANDI MURITEGURA VACANCES
HAVE WONDERFUL HOLIDAYS Kimwe n'abategura gusubira ku mwuga wabo ALL THE BEST
IMANA IBARINDE ALIGATO
Igishimishije ni uko aho buri wese ari akomeza kurwana ishyaka uko bishoboka kose.
Ku bwanyje ntekereza ABANA TWARERANYWE nita KANDI NISE IMPANZI kuko ari cyo mbifuriza, bikaba bigaragaza ubushobozi ;INTEGO ZANJYE NI WHAT DO YOU WANT TO DO BEFORE YOU DIE cfr www.theburiedlife.com .By'umwihariko kuri abo twareranywe nifuza MY EXCELLENCY BE THEIR HONOR WHILE MY WICKNESS MY SHAME.
Mbifurige guhora mwesa umuhigo wo kuba sample wherever be .
Mu gihe twizihiza UMUNANI IRARIDUTSE bamwe muri mu mabazwa anyuranye GOOD LUCK"
ABANDI MURITEGURA VACANCES
HAVE WONDERFUL HOLIDAYS Kimwe n'abategura gusubira ku mwuga wabo ALL THE BEST
IMANA IBARINDE ALIGATO
Sunday, September 28, 2008
MY ALBUM
OUR TIMES IS NOT SETTLED STRAINGHTLY AND IF CHANGING DOES NOT PERVEN US SOLUTION TO THAT SITUATION REQUIRES HAVING ESTABLE OF AIM TO FOLLOW CONTINUALLY UNLESS ONE GETS DROPPED.
THE DREAM APPEAR AS QUEUE TO BE REALISED HOWEVER THAT BECOME SAVAGE WHWN YOU DESOBEY CREATOR CONSIDERING YOULSELF AS ALMITH...TO ALWAYS ANALYSE OUR WINNING AND OUR LOST IS AMONG WAYS TO LIVE HARMONIOUSLY.
WHY LIVING FACE OFTEN WRINKLEDM heart harden ...
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