Thursday, May 29, 2014
POETRY AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Friday, May 9, 2014
PS 78 LITERARY CRITICISM
literary criticism
barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition
references:
https://ddeubel.edublogs.org/2010/12/17/barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition/comment-page-1/
• www.aiu.edu/University {30/01/2014}
• www.ehow.com/info_7879672_types-language-barriers.html#ixzz2sXNtivvx[30/01/2014]
• https://ddeubel.edublogs.org/2010/12/17/barriers-to-language-learning-and-acquisition/comment-page-1/{30/01/2014}
Learning a second language isn’t easy. There is a lot that can get in the way. It isn’t as automatic or sure as we’d suppose. Depending on the person, there can be some high barriers to learning another language.
I’m teaching a unit on this in a certificate course and thought I’d make my own list. (yes, could have flipped open my Gass and Selinker but then I wouldn’t be learning anything, would I!?) I’d love it if you could read and add something I missed or tell us which you think is the most important to spend time diminishing. I put them into 5 categories.
Barriers to Language Acquisition and Learning
Social
- peer group
- socio-economic status
- L1 education and literacy
- parental/family support
- access and support
Psycho / Emotional
- affective factors (anxiety, social bias)
- self belief
- motivation (low intrinsic and extrinsic forces)
- attitude towards language and learning
- social disposition / character
Biological
- psycho motor skills
- cognitive functioning
- L1 development / childhood developmental factors
- physical impairments (deaf, blind etc…)
- psychological fitness
- age and health
Pedagogical
- type and method of instruction
- improper materials and curriculum
- little access to input (native speakers / audio material)
- school and classroom culture
- lack of learning skills, strategies
- teacher/student relationship
- planning and use of time
Cultural
- language transfer and interference (L1-L2 closeness)
- cultural values regarding risk taking, openess
- government policy and investment
- dislocation, movement, war
The structure of age: in search of barriers to second language acquisition
1. Ellen Bialystok
1. York University
Two small-scale studies are described which attempt to explore some of these issues. In both cases, it is found that the correspondence between language structures in the first and second language is the most important factor affecting acquisition. The age at which second language acquisitions begins is not a significant factor in either study, but the length of residence, indicating the amount of time spent speaking the second language, is significant in the second study. The conclusion is that there is insufficient evidence to accept the claim that mastery of a second language is determined wholly, or even primarily, by maturational factors. Some suggestions are made for an alternative interpretation based on processing differences between older and younger language learners.
an overview of the five most important ID variables (personality, aptitude, motivation, learning styles and learning strategies) and then concludes by describing certain common themes in contemporary ID research.
DOI: 10.1075/aila.19.05dor
In: Bardovi-Harlig, Kathleen and Zoltán Dörnyei (eds.), Themes in SLA Research. AILA Review, Volume 19 . 2006. 132 pp. (pp. 42–68)
LANGUAGE ACQUISITION BARRIERS
These are the obvious reasons for the problems experienced in second language acquisition, and most of them are related that people attempt to learn another language during their teenage or adult years, in a few hours each week of school time, and they have a lot of other things to take care of, instead a child learns via the constant interaction that he or she experiences, and has not many things else to do. Besides the adult or teenage people have an already known language available for most of their daily communicative requirements.
There are other reasons, for example the suggestion that adults tongues get stiff from pronouncing one type of language and just cannot cope with the sounds of another language. However there is not physical evidence to support this.
Maybe the primary difficulty for most people can be captured in terms of a distinction between acquisition and learning.
The term acquisition refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations. Instead the term learning applies to the conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of a language.
Activities related with learning have traditionally been used in language teaching in schools, and if they are successful tend to result in knowledge about the language studied. Activities related with acquisition are those experienced by the
young child and by those who pick up another language from long periods spent in social interaction, the language used daily, in another country.
Those whose second language experience is primarily a learning one tend not to develop the proficiency of those who have had an acquiring experience.
However, even in ideal acquisition situations, very few adults seem to reach native like proficiency in using a second language. There are suggestions that some features, for example vocabulary or grammar, of a second language are easier to acquire than other, for example phonology. Sometimes this is taken as evidence that after the critical period has passed, around puberty, it becomes very difficult to acquire another language fully. It has been demonstrated that students in their early teens are quicker and more effective second language learners than, for example 7 year old. It may be, of course, that the acquisition of a second language requires a combination of factors. The optimum age may be during the years 11-16 when the flexibility of the language acquisition faculty has not been completely lost, and the maturation of cognitive skills allows more effective working out of the regular features of the second language encountered.
Yet during this optimum age, there may exist an acquisition barrier of quite a different sort. Teenagers are typically much more self conscious than young children. If there is a strong element of unwillingness or embarrassment in attempting to produce the different sounds of other languages, then it may override whatever physical and cognitive abilities there are. If this self-consciousness is combined with a lack of empathy with the foreign culture, then the subtle effects of not wanting to sound like a Russian or an American may strongly inhibit the acquisition process.
DIFFERENCE B/W LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING
Language acquisition is the ability of the brain in its cognitive development & process to conceptualize concepts,structures and semantics in a language , while learning is the active participation and effort to learn a language. Language teachers devise methods as components of language acquisition, while learners use them to learn.
Language acquisition is a natural process for any native to acquire his native vernacular language.Language learning is a structured system for anyone to learn a language.
Language Acquisition & Language Learning:
It is important to understand the difference between language acquisition, in which language is acquired, and
language learning, in which language is learned. The term second language refers to a language developed in addition to one’s first language. Some children acquire a second language in much the same way as a first language, for example, if they move to another country at a young age or if their caregiver speaks a different language. But in most cases a second language is learned, rather than acquired. That is, the second language is developed with a conscious effort rather than by actually using the language naturally. Most learners of Dena’ina are learning in this way, with concious effort.
There are many differences between first language acquisition and second language learning. There are also many myths about these difference. It is generally true that it is easier to acquire a first language than it is to learn a second language. But the reasons for this difference are for the most part based on the difference between acquisition and learning.
One myth is that it is somehow easier to learn a language if it was spoken by your ancestors. Whle there may be a genetic disposition toward the human capacity for language, there is no genetic disposition toward a particular language. Thus, in theory it is no easier for a person of Dena’ina heritage to learn Dena’ina than to learn French (though the ready availability of curriculum and speakers may make French easier in practice).
Another common myth is that children simply learn language easier than adults. Children do indeed seem to develop better pronunciation skills than do adults who learn language later in life. In fact, it is nearly impossible for adults to develop completely native-like pronunciation. However, adults are just as capable of learning language as are children. The reasons it seems easier for children has less to do with age than with other factors that go along with age.
Most significantly, a child is in a very special privileged position in society. Errors which seem cute when made by a child are odd or weird when made by an adult. We are happy to smile and talk “baby-talk” with a child, but reluctant to do this for adults.
Children are happy to babble away to themselves, while adults may be more self-conscious. Overcoming some of this reluctance to appear child-like may significantly improve the success of second-language learners.
Language acquisition vs language learning:
There is an important distinction made by linguists between language acquisition and language learning. Children acquire
language through a subconscious process during which they are unaware of grammatical rules. This is similar to the way they acquire their first language. They get a feel for what is and what isn’t correct. In order to acquire language, the learner needs a source of natural communication. The emphasis is on the text of the communication and not on the form. Young students who are in the process of acquiring English get plenty of “on the job” practice. They readily acquire the language to communicate with classmates.
Language learning, on the other hand, is not communicative. It is the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. And it certainly is not an age-appropriate activity for your young learners. In language learning, students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that knowledge. They can fill in the blanks on a grammar page. Research has shown, however, that knowing grammar rules does not necessarily result in good speaking or writing.r A student who has memorized the rules of the language may be able to succeed on a standardized test of English language but may not be able to speak or write correctly.
THE AFFECTIVE FILTER:
All learners in the process of acquiring a second language have an invisible filter inside of them that has the potential to result in anxiety, stress, and lack of self-confidence. This invisible filter is theoretically called the affective filter, and it has an important role in the learning (or not) of another language.
Some people have a naturally low affective filter and are relatively confident about learning a second language. However, not everyone is so lucky. Many other people have experienced anxiety and inability to effectively comprehend or communicate well in another language. They sweat, stammer, and butcher the language.
They can’t seem to control what comes out of their mouth. Sometimes they can’t even utter a peep.
The affective filter can make or break proficiency in a second language.
It was because of a high affective filter that I took a long detour on my personal route to proficiency in Spanish. In high school I was able to pick up Spanish relatively quickly. As a senior in high school, my Spanish was much more developed than other native English-speaking students and I was the lone native English speaker in the Advanced Placement Spanish literature class. Most of the students in the class were recent arrivals from Mexico and didn’t speak English.
One day as we were reading Don Quixote, the Spanish teacher began to review irregular past tense verbs that were being used in the story. He wrote two sentences on the board with the Spanish verb traer and we had to choose the correct irregular conjugation. I raised my hand and identified the correct irregular conjugation, traje. Suddenly, one of my classmates began to giggle across the room and she said. “No, traí”. Which of course was incorrect, but I suddenly became confused. The teacher quickly verified that I had answered correctly. I was absolutely mortified and sat there in shame for the rest of the class period, even though I had answered correctly. All I could hear was the giggling.
I never spoke Spanish in front of a native Spanish speaker for almost four years. Every time that someone would talk to me in Spanish, I responded in English.
In college I refused to speak Spanish in my classes and my competence in Spanish was always underestimated and
misidentified. In my third year of Spanish at the university level, one professor did not even believe that I was writing my own essays and made me write an essay in front of her. As I walked out the door, she said, “If you could only speak as well as you write-then I would say you are proficient”.
I responded, “I probably could speak as proficiently as I write. It’s sad that it will never happen”.
I’m not exactly sure what happened and when I began to feel comfortable enough to speak Spanish again. I’m sure it had
something to do with the many parents of the children that I taught who seemed impressed with and appreciative of my attempts to communicate with them. It also had a bit to do with the many native Spanish-speakers who barely even noticed the errors that I frequently made.
Over the years I have naturally learned how to lower my affective filter and have become more confident with my proficiency in Spanish. But every once in a while something happens, like a room full of one hundred Spanish-speaking parents who are upset about something, and my affective filter begins to rise. In those moments I’m typically shocked at the disaster that begins to come out of my mouth. I can turn from an advanced Spanish speaker to a blubbering fool in the blink of an eye. Well, maybe not a blubbering fool, but at least someone who sounds like they just started learning Spanish.
In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word for word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.
The Grammar Translation Method:
The Grammar Translation Method is the oldest method of teaching in India. A number of methods and techniques have evolved for the teaching of English and also other foreign languages in the recent past, yet this method is still in use in many part of India. It maintains the mother tongue of the learner as the reference particularly in the process of learning the second/ foreign languages. The main principles on which the Grammar Translation Method is based are the following:
1.Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner.
2.The phraseology and the idiom of the target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation.
3.The structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrast with those of mother tongue.
In this method, while teaching the text book the teacher translates every word and phrase from English into the learners mother tongue. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their mother tongue into English. These exercises in translation are based on various items covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the study of grammar through deduction that is through the study of the rules of grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the mother tongue gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of the mother tongue.
Advantages:
1. The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or
words and phrases from one language into another. Any other method of explaining vocabulary items in the second
language is found time consuming. A lot of time is wasted if the meanings of lexical items are explained through definitions and illustrations in the second language. Further, learners acquire some sort of accuracy in understanding
synonyms in the source language and the target language.
2.Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the mother tongue, the teacher may
ask comprehension questions on the text taught in the mother tongue. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding
to questions in the mother tongue. So, the teacher can easily assess whether the students have learned what he has taught
them. Communication between the teacher and the learner does not cause linguistic problems. Even teachers who are not fluent in English can teach English through this method. That is perhaps the reason why this method has been practiced so widely and has survived so long.
Disadvantages:
1. It is an unnatural method. The natural order of learning a language is listening, speaking, reading and writing. That is the way a child learns his mother tongue in natural surroundings; but, in the Grammar Translation Method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading. Thus, the learning process is reversed. This poses problems.
2. Speech is neglected. The Grammar Translation Method lays emphasis on reading and writing. It neglects speech. Thus,
the students who are taught English through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English. Even
at the undergraduate stage they feel shy of communicating using English. It has been observed that in a class, which
is taught English through this method, learners listen to the mother tongue more than that to the second/foreign language. Since language learning involves habit formation such students fail to acquire a habit of speaking English.
Therefore, they have to pay a heavy price for being taught through this method.
3.Exact translation is not possible. Translation is, indeed, a difficult task and exact translation from one language to
another is not always possible. A language is the result of various customs, traditions, and modes of behavior of a speech community and these traditions differ from community to community. There are several lexical items in one language, which have no synonyms/equivalents in another language. For example, the meaning of the English word ‘table’ does not fit in such expressions as ‘table of contents’, ‘table of figures’, ‘multiplication table’, ‘time table’ and ‘table the resolution’, etc. English prepositions are also difficult to translate. Consider sentences such as ‘We see with our eyes’, ‘Bombay is far from Delhi’, ‘He died of cholera’, ‘He succeeded through hard work’. In these sentences ‘with’, ‘from’, ‘of’, and ‘through’ can be translated into the Hindi preposition ‘se’ and vice versa. Each language has its own structure, idiom and usage, which do not have their exact counterparts in another language. Thus, translation should be considered an index of one’s proficiency in a language.
4.It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the Grammar Translation Method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language. It rather attempts to teach language through rules and not by use. Researchers in linguistics have proved that to speak any language, whether native or foreign, entirely by rule is quite impossible. Language learning means acquiring certain skills, which can be learned through practice and not by just memorizing rules. The persons who have learned a foreign or second language through this method find it difficult to give up the habit of first thinking in their mother tongue and then translating their ideas into the second language. They, therefore, fail to get proficiency in the second language approximating that in the first language. The method, therefore, suffers from certain weaknesses for which there is no remedy.
Conclusion:
The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure to follow. The trusty grammar translation method set the pace for many classrooms for many decades.
Monty Python made fun of the grammar translation method in their film Life of Brian.
The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key[1], is a style of teaching used in teachingforeign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students’ native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition
with communicative language teaching.
Charles Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students’ job to orally recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The students were only given “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included
principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.
Examples:
Inflection : Teacher : I ate the sandwich. Student : I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement : Teacher : He bought the car for half-price.
Student : He bought it for half-price.
Restatement : Teacher : Tell me not to smoke so often.
Student : Don’t smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice session :
“Teacher: There’s a cup on the table … repeat
Students: There’s a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There’s a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There’s a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There’s a book on the chair etc.
Historical Background:
The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical circumstances. For its views on language, audiolingualism drew on the work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield.
The prime concern of American Linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA. However, because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed. At the same time, behaviorist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behavior (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement.
The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-lingual method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. It was therefore necessary to provide these soldiers with
at least basic verbal communication skills. Unsurprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.
Relationship with other methods and approaches:
Historically, CLT has been seen as a response to the audio-lingual method (ALM), and as an extension or development of
the notional-functional syllabus. Task-based language learning, a more recent refinement of CLT, has gained considerably in popularity.
The Communicative Approach was founded by Robert Langs:
Psychoanalysis has turned reality on its head: We are taught to think of ourselves as distorters and misperceivers, unreliable slaves to our inner fantasies – especially when we are patients in therapy. But the communicative approach has shown that it is more accurate and compelling to see ourselves as highly reliable perceivers, with the understanding that our most valid perceptions are experienced unconsciously and encoded in the stories we tell to ourselves and others. Knowing how to decode these stories is the key to a truly accurate view of the human emotion-processing mind and emotional life.
The full name of the Communicative Approach (CA) is “The Communicative-Adaptive approach.” This highlights the two
most distinctive features of the CA: first, that it is a new way to understand human emotionally-laden communications and second, that it has shown that the primary function of the emotion-processing mind is to cope with – adapt to – immediate emotionally-charged triggering events.
What is the communicative approach?
The communicative approach (CA) was developed by Robert Langs MD, In the early 1970′s. It is a new theory or paradigm of emotional life and psychoanalysis that is centered on human adaptations to emotionally-charged events–with full appreciation that such adaptations take place both within awareness (consciously) and outside of awareness (unconsciously). The approach gives full credence to the unconscious side of emotional life and has rendered it highly sensible and incontrovertible by discovering a new, validated, and deeply meaningful way of decoding unconscious messages. This procedure-called trigger decoding–has brought forth new and highly illuminating revisions
of our understanding of both emotional life and psychotherapy, and it calls for significant changes in presently accepted
psychoanalytic thinking and practice.
The CA has exposed and offered correctives for much of what’s wrong with our current picture of the emotional mind and today’s psychotherapies-critical errors in thinking and practice that have cause untold suffering throughout the world. In essence, the approach has shown that emotional problems do not arise first and foremost from disturbing inner memories and fantasies or daydreams; nor do they arise primarily from consciously known thoughts and patterns of behavior. Instead, emotional disturbances arise primarily from failed efforts at coping with current emotionally-charged traumas. The present-day focus by mainstream psychoanalysts (MP) on the past and on inner fantasies and memories has been replaced in this CA with a focus on the present, as experienced and reacted to consciously and unconsciously-in brief, the primacy afforded by MP to fantasy and imagination has been replaced by the primacy afforded by the CA.
Demonstrates Proprio-Kinesthetic language learning (Photo credit: Wikipedia)
nstructions
1.
o 1
Show a willingness to communicate. Put the other person at ease by how you present yourself. He is already self-conscious and uncomfortable by the fact that you are having difficulty understanding him. Be encouraging and supportive to the other person. Let him feel there is nothing to be afraid of because you are trying your best to understand and communicate.
o 2
Speak slowly. If the other person knows how to speak and understand English, chances are she is not very familiar with all the words you will use and how you will pronounce them. It will help her digest better what you are trying to say when you speak to her a little bit more slowly than your usual conversation. This gives her the time to process the information in her head. Avoid using any slang terms or idioms, as well. These terms are usually colloquial and are confusing to someone who is learning English in a classroom setting.
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o 3
Use body language. Act out what you're trying to say. Words backed up with body gestures help a lot in expressing yourself. You may feel silly, but you will get your point across.
o 4
Use visual aids. This is most helpful when asking or giving directions to someone who is having trouble understanding you. Draw or use pictures or things to represent ideas, persons or places. It will help make communicating more efficient if you use images that both of you can relate to.
o 5
Keep trying. Sometimes it takes a little bit more effort to communicate, but if you both keep on trying until you get it, it's worth it. Also, remember to have a sense of humor to make the ordeal a bit lighter and the whole experience fun instead of stressful
1. Misperception
o Perception plays a powerful role in the way that people communicate with each other and can greatly influence the quality of the communication taking place. During perception, a person becomes aware of the people, locations, objects and events present, assigning meaning to those things. Meaning is designated based on past experience, first impressions and evolving understandings. This means that through perception people can potentially assign labels and stereotypes to each other, preventing them from communicating with each other in a healthy manner.
Poor Listening
o Whereas "hearing" is a purely physical process, and thus requires little effort, the mental process of "listening" requires a significant amount of attention and effort in order to be effective. Poor listening can lead to messages being distorted or lost, and lead to poor overall communication. People use the communication skill of listening all of the time, yet very little attention is given to how to listen effectively.
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Misunderstood Symbols
o According to "Communication Counts: Getting it Right in College and Life," human communication can be defined as "negotiating symbolic meaning." This means that through verbal communication (language) and nonverbal communication (action and behavior), people use symbols with created meanings. This creates a barrier when the meanings assigned to a symbol don't match up between people communicating.
Cultural Differences
o Cultural differences can confuse meaning and ultimately create a communication barrier. Individualist cultures, such as the United States and Great Britain, focus on individual success and "speaking one's mind."
In contrast, collectivist cultures, such as Asian societies, focus on group success and the use of indirect language organized around respect and authority. Differences between these cultural styles of communication can lead to misunderstandings and an unwillingness to communicate in worse-case scenarios.
Conflict Management Styles
o The way that people manage conflict can directly effect the quality of communication. Individuals with competition-based conflict styles will approach disagreements as a challenge that must be won, disregarding any communication organized to resolve the conflict amicably.
In contrast, individuals whose conflict management style leads them to avoiding conflict altogether are just as unlikely to foster quality communication, as they will withdraw from conflict discussions. Adopting a conflict management style focused on collaboration is more likely to reduce barriers and contribute to healthy conflict management.
Technological Barriers
o When technology is used mediate communication, the potential for misunderstanding is increased and can potentially lead to significant barriers. Technology-based communication, such as phone conversations, text messages and emails remove aspects of the face-to-face interaction found in natural human communication. Without aspects such as nonverbal cues, eye contact and vocal communication, people are more likely to misunderstand messages, causing communication to suffer and potentially leading to conflicts. For example, a text message sent in all capital letters can be interpreted as angry, when the reality may be much different.
• What Are Language Barriers?
• Issues on Language Barriers
1. Judging
o One type of language barrier is judging information. Kimberly Moynahan Gerson of Archeolink.com says people fall into two distinct groups when it comes to communication: People either judge or perceive information. Judgers make use of their preferences and opinions when communicating with others. When they speak, they are very direct, and the person on the receiving end of the message has no problem knowing where they stand on a subject. They also let others know what they want from them by using clear, concise language. They ask others for more information to clarify their viewpoints and to make their final decisions. They also thrive on closure -- and always need an end to the discussion.
Perceiving
o Instead of using their opinion to make decisions toward communicating, the perceivers use the actions of others and their environment to decide how they will communicate their needs to others They are careful not to make judgments based solely on their observations. To get what they want, they state their perceptions and allow the world to decipher what they want. Perceivers are not direct and instead give others subtle clues about what they want. Even when all the information is given, they are never quick to make a final decision. Instead, they may inquire more about the topic so they can make additional perceptions.
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Culture
o CharlotteWorks.org reports that language barriers often coincide with cultural differences, which lead to misunderstandings in the workplace. For instance, a person who speaks very little English might be intimidated or find it frustrating to speak with an English-speaking supervisor. It may also be just as difficult or frustrating for native English-speaking co-workers and supervisors to communicate with co-workers who speak very little English. One downside to such a language barrier is that workers who do not have a strong grasp of the English language are more likely to have an accident on the job due to their inability to understand safety standards in the workplace.
Online Lingo
o Due to the increase in different forms of technology, such as computers, cell phones and other wireless devices -- where communication is short and sweet -- people tend to use online lingo. While there are different ways for a person to get her point across using technology, the lines of communication may also be hard to understand. This is especially true if one person in the conversation uses online lingo that the other person is not familiar with. For instance, if the sender of a message types a message using acronyms such as LOL (laugh out loud) or BRB (be right back), and the receiver is not familiar with this type of language, the receiver of the message cannot comprehend the meaning of the message
Read more: http://www.ehow.com/info_7879672_types-language-barriers.html#ixzz2sXNtivvx
Literary fiction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Literary fiction is a term principally used for certain fictional works that are claimed to hold literary merit.
Despite the fact that all genres have works that are well written, those works are generally not considered literary fiction. To be considered literary, a work usually must be "critically acclaimed" and "serious".[1] In practice, works of literary fiction often are "complex, literate, multilayered novels that wrestle with universal dilemmas".[2]
Literary fiction (a.k.a. mainstream fiction) is usually contrasted with paraliterary fiction (e.g., popular, commercial, or genre fiction). This contrast between these two subsets of fiction is highly controversial amongst critics and scholars who study literature.
Literary fiction is usually not considered a genre, with associated conventions, but there are common characteristics that can help define it.[3]
Characterization
Literary fiction, in general, focuses on the subjects of the narrative to create "introspective, in-depth character studies" of "interesting, complex and developed" characters.[3][4] This contrasts with paraliterary fiction where "generally speaking, the kind of attention that we pay to the subject in literature ... has to be paid to the social and material complexities of the object".[5]
Plot
Literary fiction does not focus on plot as much as paraliterary fiction.[6] Usually, the focus is on the "inner story" of the characters who drive the plot with detailed motivations to elicit "emotional involvement" in the reader.[7][8]
Style
The style of literary fiction is often described as "elegantly written, lyrical, and ... layered".[9]
Tone
The tone of literary fiction is usually serious and, therefore, often darker than paraliterary fiction.[10]
Pacing
The pacing of literary fiction is slower than paraliterary fiction.[10] As Terrence Rafferty notes, "literary fiction, by its nature, allows itself to dawdle, to linger on stray beauties even at the risk of losing its way."[11]
As a genre
Some authors suggest that literary fiction is, in itself, just another genre or set of genres. Samuel R. Delany, for example, notes that the "literary genres might be characterized as the 'tyranny of the subject'" because of the focus on the "subject, the self, [and] psychology".[5] On the other hand, Mort Castle suggests that literary fiction is composed of three genres: literature (i.e., classics), realism, and postmodernist fiction.[12]
Other authors struggle with the expectations of the literary 'genre'. In an interview by Lev Grossman for Time magazine, John Updike lamented that "the category of 'literary fiction' has sprung up recently to torment people like me who just set out to write books, and if anybody wanted to read them, terrific, the more the merrier. But now, no, I'm a genre writer of a sort. I write literary fiction, which is like spy fiction or chick lit".[13] Likewise, on The Charlie Rose Show, he shared that he felt this term, when applied to his work, greatly limited him and his expectations of what might come of his writing, and so does not really like it. He said that all his works are literary simply because "they are written in words".[14]
Alternative definitions
Neal Stephenson has suggested that while any definition will be simplistic there is a general cultural difference between literary and genre fiction, created by who the author is accountable to. Literary novelists are typically supported by patronage via employment at a university or similar institutions, with the continuation of such positions determined not by book sales but by critical acclaim by other established literary authors and critics. Genre fiction writers seek to support themselves by book sales and write to please a mass audience.[15]
Monday, February 17, 2014
Languages and Travel Information
Rwanda is located in Sub-Saharan Africa, with a population of 10,942,950 (2011) and the arrival of 666,000 (2010) tourists a year. Are you traveling or researching Rwanda? Following is some information on the languages and country. The TRAVEL EYE RWANDAoffers our Lifetime Members printable and downloadable language sheets with no monthly costs ever. With more than 16 languages covering over 2.3 billion people worldwide, we can help make your travels to Rwanda and beyond even more fun!
If you are traveling to Rwanda or just looking for some more information, we can provide some Rwanda travel language help. We also have some word categories for travel to Rwanda. We’re always working on new languages and more travel words for the languages we do have. Our Lifetime Members have unlimited access to download and print our language sheets. We have the best language sheets on the web, guaranteed.
National Languages of Rwanda
English You’re good to go!
French SpeakSheets available!
Kinyarwanda Not yet available
Travel to these cities in Rwanda and beyond!
Always wanted to visit or return to Rwanda? We provide some great travel info for the following cities in Rwanda.
Travel to Kigali, Rwanda
745,261 residents
Rwanda Information
• Region: Sub-Saharan Africa
• Long Name: Republic of Rwanda
• Country Code: RWA
• Currency Unit: Rwandan franc
Rwanda Population
• Population: 10,942,950 (2011)
• Population, 65+: 2.68107 (2011)
• Population, 15-64: 54.55332 (2011)
• Population, 0-14: 42.76561 (2011)
• Income share held by lowest 10%: 2.13 (2011)
• Income share held by highest 10%: 43.22 (2011)
Rwanda Internet, Mobile and News
• Internet users: 766,006.5 (2011)
• Internet users per 100 people: 7 (2011)
• Fixed broadband subscribers: 3,651 (2011)
• Fixed broadband subscribers per 100 people: 0.03336 (2011)
• Daily newspapers per 1,000 people: unspecified
• Mobile cellular subscriptions: 4,446,194 (2011)
• Mobile cellular subscriptions per 100 people: 40.63067 (2011)
Rwanda Transportation
• Passenger cars per 1,000 people: 2 (2009)
• Motor vehicles per 1,000 people: 5 (2009)
• Rail lines (km): unspecified
Rwanda Tourism
• International tourism revenue (US$): 94,000,000 (2010)
• International tourism arrivals: 666,000 (2010)
• ATM’s per 100,000 adults: 0.81437 (2009)
Rwanda Economy
• GDP (US$): 6,377,408,665 (2011)
• GDP growth (annual %): 8.6 (2011)
• GDP per capita (US$): 582.78697 (2011)
• Employment in agriculture: 78.8 (2005)
• Employment in services: 16.6 (2005)
• Employment in industry: 78.8 (2005)
• New businesses registered: 3,028 (2009)
Rwanda Health
• Life expectancy: 55.39459 (2011)
• Health expenditure per capita (US$): 55.50948 (2010)
• Adult males who smoke: unspecified
• Adult females who smoke: unspecified
• Nurses and midwives per 1,000 people: 0.448 (2010)
• Hospital beds per 1,000 people: 1.6 (2007)
Rwanda Environment
• Mammal species, threatened: 20 (2011)
• Fish species, threatened: 9 (2011)
• Bird species, threatened: 12 (2011)
• Droughts, floods, extreme temps (% of pop): 1.29597 (2009)
• Marine protected areas: unspecified
Tuesday, September 10, 2013
21KAMENA
UMUNSI MWIZA KURI WOWE MUVANDIMWE UGIZE AMHIRWE YO GUFUNGURA IYI PAJI
URAKOZE KUBANA NA TWE.
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